Introduction

Chinese sources on Japan to 1900

Early Chinese Dynastic Histories on Japan

According to the “Treatises on Geography” in the Hanshu 漢書, one of the official Chinese dynastic histories compiled in the 1st century AD, China and Japan had a documented relationship since the 1st century BC, when Japan occasionally sent tribute to China. But the first separate chapter in the Chinese dynastic histories especially dedicated to Japan (“Accounts on the Eastern Barbarians”) we can only find in the Hou Hanshu 後漢書 (5th cent.) that provides us valuable information on the so-called “wo 倭-people” (lit. “dwarfs”, old Chinese designation for the Japanese) and the land of the “wo”. After the Hou Hanshu, one separate chapter on history, geography and customs of the Japanese islands became regular part of the dynastic histories. These chapters described the Japanese at the beginning as “Eastern barbarians” (dongyi 東夷) from the land of the “wo” (Woguo 倭國), but later, around the 10th century, the name “Riben” 日本 became the standard term instead of “Woguo” for the land “Japan” (while the old term “wo” or “Woguo” remained in use, too). The early Chinese dynastic histories are extremely important sources in the case of Japan because Japan has no written sources before the 8th century. For research on ancient Japanese history from the 1st up to the 7th century these Chinese sources provide the only contemporary information and they serve, thus, as valuable materials for a comparison with Japanese sources, such as Nihon shoki 日本書紀, which was compiled only in the 8th century. After the establishment of official relations with China during the Sui (589–618) and Tang (618–906) dynasties Japan sent several official embassies to China between the 7th and 9th centuries. The dynastic histories provide valuable accounts on these embassies. In addition, an important source for this period is Nittō guhō junrei kōki 入唐求法巡禮行記, the diary of the Japanese monk En’nin 圓仁, that describes his experience and contemporary circumstances in Tang China.

The Song-Yuan Period

In the Song period (960–1279), sources on foreign countries were compiled in greater quantity than during the former dynasties. Most important among these are historical works, such as Song huiyao jigao 宋會要輯稿 and Wenxian tongkao 文獻通考, and encyclopaedias, such as Taiping yulan 太平禦覽 and Cefu yuangui 冊府元龜. These works – together with the official dynastic history, Songshi 宋史, also contain records on Japan and are useful for an investigation of Sino-Japanese relations in the Tang and Song periods. It should be mentioned in this context that the content of these works is sometimes very similar, because they used the same sources during compilation.

The 10-14th century is a very active period in the history of Japan and China. Many Japanese merchants and Buddhist monks travelled to China, and also many Chinese merchants arrived in Japan during these centuries. Mutual relations can be characterized as being dominated by free trade and Buddhist pilgrimage. Relevant sources we can find not only in dynastic-historical writings but also in Chinese literary and Buddhist works written by monks, literates or officials who had relationship with Japanese during their stay in China. Writings of Japanese monks on their stay in China, such as San Tendai Godaisan ki 參天台五臺山記, by Jōjin 成尋, or Tosōki 渡宋記, by Kaikaku 戒覺, are, however, also important sources for this period. This kind of private sources on the Chinese side (and as far as possible from the Japanese end) has still to be explored and described in much more detail.

Sino-Japanese Relations during the Ming

The situation of the Sino-Japanese relations changed during the Ming dynasty. After long centuries of free trade and free movement Japan became one of the official tributary countries of China that decided to restrict the traffic with Japan and also with other countries. On relations during this period we find entries in the Ming shilu 明實錄 (Veritable Records of Ming) and there is also a chapter on Japan in the dynastic history, the Mingshi 明史. Da Ming huidian 大明會典 (Collected statues of the great Ming) is also an essential work containing entries on Japan and relations with Japanese. We also possess official memorials from Ming officials on Japanese and their embassies, which are recorded in Ming jingshi wenbian 明經世文編, a source that was based on the collected works (wenji 文集) of officials. Still extant original writing collections are also important sources, such as the Piyu zaji 甓餘雜記 by the famous official Zhu Wan 朱紈, who was responsible for the administration of the last official Japanese embassy in the middle of the 16th century. From the Ming period we also possess various treatises on border defense, foreigners and foreign relations, such as Wubei zhi 武備志, Shuyu zhouzi lu 殊域周咨錄, Siyi kao 四夷考, Xianbin lu 咸賓錄 etc. These sources also provide descriptions of Japan.

During the Ming period, Chinese coastal regions frequently suffered from attacks and plundering by so-called “Wo-pirates”, who were considered as – both in contemporary sources and in the later modern Chinese scholarship – being “Japanese pirates”. But in reality, most of these pirates – who were rather armed illegal merchant-groups – were basically Chinese with only few Japanese members. Because of this misunderstanding the interest for Japan and the Japanese among Chinese officials in the 16th century – when pirate-raids were especially severe – increased a lot. Many works were written in this century on Japan and the Japanese, in order to learn more about this country, which was considered an “enemy” among some Chinese officials. Most representative works on Japan from this century are Chouhai tubian 籌海圖編, Riben kao 日本考, Riben kaolüe 日本考略, Riben yijian 日本一鑑, and Huangming xiangxu lu 皇明象胥錄. An investigation of biji 筆記-literature (miscellaneous notes) that will examine chapters of biji-works mentioning Japanese issues will also constitute an important part of this chapter in the handbook.

In addition, Chinese texts surviving in Japan as copies will be also investigated. An important text of this kind is Kasei kōtoku shū 嘉靖公牘集, a collection of documents written by Chinese officials in 1548-49 for Japanese embassies. These documents were perhaps collected during the last official embassy to the Ming court and survived as a copy in the collection of a Japanese Neo-Confucian scholar in the middle of the Edo-period (17/18th cent.). On the Japanese side, diaries of official embassies to the Ming, so-called nyūminki 入明記-sources, also have to be mentioned. These sources provide detailed information about the activities of the Japanese in China and help to understand the diplomatic system of Ming.

Qing Period Sources on Japan

During the Qing period (1644–1911) Japan possessed no direct official relations with China. Only trade relations were maintained with the Chinese through the Japanese port of Nagasaki. There are accounts on Japan and Chinese relations with Japan in Qing sources like Qing shilu 清實錄 or Qing shigao 清史稿. Still, many unexplored information is hidden in the “Court Diaries” (qijuzhu 起居注) and imperial edicts (zhupi yuzhi 硃批諭旨 or “vermillion-sealed edicts”), and in memorials collected in Huangchao jingshi wenbian 皇朝經世文編. On the trade and interaction with Chinese in Nagasaki there are also many sources in Japan, such as Ka’i hentai 華夷變體, Tōtsūji kaisho nichiroku 唐通事會所日錄, or sources of the so-called shinpai 信牌-trade. Records compiled by Japanese officials and documents are still awaiting detailed investigation.

This chapter of the handbook aims, thus, to provide an overview on Chinese sources dealing with Japan and the Japanese from the 1st to the 19th century, and to introduce the most important Japanese sources concerning Sino-Japanese relations. Furthermore, each subsection of this chapter will provide a list of relevant translations and secondary literature available on this topic in Western languages, Chinese and Japanese.